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  • Title: Amebae and ciliated protozoa as causal agents of waterborne zoonotic disease.
    Author: Schuster FL, Visvesvara GS.
    Journal: Vet Parasitol; 2004 Dec 09; 126(1-2):91-120. PubMed ID: 15567581.
    Abstract:
    The roles free-living amebae and the parasitic protozoa Entamoeba histolytica and Balantidium coli play as agents of waterborne zoonotic diseases are examined. The free-living soil and water amebae Naegleria fowleri, Acanthamoeba spp., and Balamuthia mandrillaris are recognized etiologic agents of mostly fatal amebic encephalitides in humans and other animals, with immunocompromised and immunocompetent hosts among the victims. Acanthamoeba spp. are also agents of amebic keratitis. Infection is through the respiratory tract, breaks in the skin, or by uptake of water into the nostrils, with spread to the central nervous system. E. histolytica and B. coli are parasitic protozoa that cause amebic dysentery and balantidiasis, respectively. Both intestinal infections are spread via a fecal-oral route, with cysts as the infective stage. Although the amebic encephalitides can be acquired by contact with water, they are not, strictly speaking, waterborne diseases and are not transmitted to humans from animals. Non-human primates and swine are reservoirs for E. histolytica and B. coli, and the diseases they cause are acquired from cysts, usually in sewage-contaminated water. Amebic dysentery and balantidiasis are examples of zoonotic waterborne infections, though human-to-human transmission can occur. The epidemiology of the diseases is examined, as are diagnostic procedures, anti-microbial interventions, and the influence of globalization, climate change, and technological advances on their spread.
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